Teaching Strategies Dyspraxia

Sample details Pages: 34 Words: 10177 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? What teaching strategies can be used to enable children with Dyspraxia to become integrated Dyspraxia is a learning disability that comes in three forms verbal, motor and oral whereby the child may have average or above average intelligence but the brain works in a different manner it is hard for the child to demonstrate their knowledge, i.e. reading comprehension may be affected because the processing of the information is different, as with verbal and/or written/symbolic comprehension. The problem with such a learning difficulty makes it hard for teachers to evaluate the progress and intelligence of the child and normal learning assignments and exams may prove an impossible form of evaluation. Therefore it is essential that the teacher works with the child to understand the learning processes of the child, attempting to provide methods that will either enable the child to take part in normal forms of evaluation or endeavor to produce an alternative form, but equivalent to the mainstream evaluation. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Teaching Strategies Dyspraxia | Education Dissertation" essay for you Create order Dyspraxia can be remedied in part by retraining and advancing the childs method of expressing their comprehension and evaluation. This is a pertinent role of the teacher, because to separate the child may have adverse effects as the child can comprehend internally the information only it expression is less advanced. Therefore this discussion will explore some theories of teaching methods comparing and contrasting the benefits of one-on-one teaching to that of mainstream teaching at the foundation level. It will also highlight the strategies of the teacher in order to integrate children with Dyspraxia at the foundation level. Chapter 2 Review of Literature: Teaching Strategies: It is at the foundation levels that children with Dyspraxia have most learning difficulties because their comprehension is average but there level of expression of this comprehension is limited. Therefore it is at this stage that these children have to be trained to express and advance their expression. In short it would be necessary for there to be accommodations to be made in the education system to ensure that the teaching of these children is sufficient. The arguments to creating teaching methods into the mainstream education system at the foundation level are very similar to the arguments of employing disabled persons in the workplace. The first argument will follow the arguments for integration into the workforce and then will consider specific teaching methods. The first main argument is whether there should be differential treatment for the children with Dyspraxia. To understand the extent that the current disability rights are effective one must understand there is a difference between a mere legal right and an inherent (also known as substantive) right. Hohfeld has been the most significant jurisprudential thinker to discuss the difference between the varying types of rights. The focus of Hohfelds analysis of rights is from an analytical perspective; the main aim of Hohfelds work was to clarify exactly what rights are. Hohfelds analysis of rights is split into four different categories which are; claim-right; privilege; power and immunity. These rights have been put together into a grid of entitlementswhich enables one to understand the nature and content of rights; which the individual has in varying degrees. It is this clear and precise method that makes Hohfelds analysis fundamental to rights interpretation within legal arenas. This exploration is going to argue that this exposition of rights is essential to jurisprudence and understanding the nature of rights. Under English law Hohfelds analysis clearly expresses how varying degrees of rights are contained under the Human Rights Act 1998 and do not conflict with parliamentary sovereignty. As Helen Fenwick discusses: Under Hohfelds view it becomes clear that, traditionally, most freedoms in the UK were merely liberties; one did no wrong to exercise them, but there was no positive duty on any organ of the state to facilitate them When the Human Rights Act 1998 came fully into force many Hohfeldian liberties became rights in Hofeldian terms since public authorities have been laid under a positive duty to respect them . Hohfelds analysis is that the confusion over the nature of rights has been effectively eliminated. In contrast to the controversies in theorists such as Dworkin , Kymlicka , Kantand MacKinnon , it does not get trapped into confusing the nature of rights with the justification of rights. If one applies this to problems concerning gender; discrimination; animal; and environmental rights one could actually apply a type of right in order to rectify the legal and moral inequities. Legal and political philosophers have gotten too tied up in justifying rights, that they have confused the meaning of right. Hohfeld has provided an interesting tool in order to level the playing field, because the question concerning the equality of rights is no longer an issue. Instead Hohfelds analysis allows for different right-elements to be applied in different situations. Therefore Hohfelds analysis can be applied to both legal analysis and moral quandaries, which means that one in addition to clarifying rights can use this analysis as a tool to justifying rights. Hohfeld was very humble in his aims for his analysis of rights, because it has provided more than a tool to clarify rights. For example if one applied this problem to media law where there are conflicts in the right to privacy and the freedom of press, these rights possibly fall into the categories of immunity; claim-right; and privilege. The problem is that they are competing rights and if one applies the level of right, also to the specific facts then the confusion that has happened between courtswould be a lot less likely. In short Hohfelds analysis has taken out all the moral quandaries in the nature of rights; and has provided an analytical method to apply to both moral quandaries and the justification of rights. This will become more apparent in the following chapters. In relation to absolute human rights or substantive rights then these are immunities which the government cannot interfere with; however a mere legal right is a privilege whereby the government has provided disability rights, but there is no need to provide these rights and may be taken away if in the governments interest. Therefore this illustrates the importance of making disability rights substantive rights but not only in the workplace but also in schools. This means if integration is the best form because it makes such a disability socially acceptable then this should be the method taken. In order to do this there must be specialized teaching methods which the teachers use and have a duty to provide in much the same way that employers have to provide special adaptations for disabled adults. The Learning Disabilities Association of America argues that the student from an early age should be subject to a curriculum that mirrors that of the child without disability, only with some accommodations and modifications may be necessary.They argue that these modifications should take the form of an Individual Education Programme whereby for students with reading difficulties or expression of comprehension through reading should have a mixture of one-on-one reading with a teacher and should also be provided with texts that are on tape so that they can follow along with the reading material. If the problem is of the memory or the inability to take down information, i.e. motor problems the teacher should provide a taped lesson for the child, teacher and parents to review at a speed whereby the child can than express their comprehension. If the motor skill impede too much then a special software programme through voice should be used. Also children with Dyspraxia at the foundation level may find expression easier by using other forms of expression, i.e. songs, rhymes, dances, tapes etc. Also along the same line to help expression of comprehension and teach how to express properly then using the other senses such as touch should be considered. These are teaching techniques that all children can use therefore this will not impede the other learners at the foundation level; as well as letting the teacher be more innovative and creative as well as building the blocks for the Individual Education Programme of the Dyspraxic child. The Australian Dyspraxic Support Group also advances techniques to help the child express their comprehension of the educative material. This group does not seem to indicate that there should be either specialized teaching or integration into the mainstream education system at the foundational levels. The aim seems to be to help the child and ensure that their intelligence is not impeded by stereotypes with putting the right teaching techniques with child. Therefore if it is motor based Dyspraxia it is to specialize teaching in developing the organization and capability of the planned expression of comprehension in the ways that the child can. If it is verbal Dyspraxia then development of the speech processes and other forms of communication should be developed and finally if it is oral Dyspraxia then written forms of communication should be used and also attempts to develop speech skills should be introduced. Therefore the use of sensory and taped materials would will really benefit the development of the child at the foundation level. Also to have integration will expose the child to mimic and use ways of communication that isolation would be unable to do so.Therefore one can infer that mainstream integration at the foundation levels would be the best approach. Belinda Hill advances in her article and research for the Dyspraxia Association of Ireland that technological aides can be used to integrate children with verbal and oral Dyspraxia. These aides include speaking computers, machines that enhance speech, machines that have a set response when a specific button is pushed, communication through symbols. These aides will help a child integrate and not feel lost in a world of communication. This would provide confidence and social development of a child which isolated education could not provide. The Dyspraxia Association of New Zealand advances a lesser advanced strategy but focuses on the necessity of the child be integrated into the mainstream educational system from the foundation level as their research shows that the best development of a child with this disability is to base the education as every other childs education the classroom teacher. The teacher would have to use a slightly different technique but evaluation and development should be on similar lines as other children. In their guidelines in what the teacher can do is as follows: Figure One What the Teacher can do: Make allowances, lower expectations in spite of child seeming bright enough. Allow more time. Adjust quantity of work. Give gentle reminders. Good teaching practices win every time. Listen to parent, who knows this child better than anyone ever will. Break tasks down into more manageable parts simplify! Dont assume the child has understood. Give single instructions rather than a string because If you treat the child the same as the others, his failure rate will be immeasurably higher than it needs to be. He knows that he is not the same; a higher failure rate means a very much lower self esteem, etc., etc. The key factor that this table shows is the child should not be segregated as it may reduce the self-esteem of the child and cause an inferiority complex. This will be interesting to contrast with the view of those who advance home schooling who believe that main stream education is disadvantaging children of all developmental elements. This will be the focus of the discussion, with a brief review of the literature in the following section. Yet the teaching techniques point to integration is possible maybe even favorable to that of specialized teaching. The key point is that integration should include an Individual Education Programme and understanding of the disability much in the same way that adaptations and understanding are essential to adaptations in the disability workplace as the following legal cases will illustrate. Therefore such a duty should be imposed on teachers for modifications if employers have a duty to their disabled employees; otherwise the arguments about the degradation of mainstream education will succeed. The issue of inequality in the workplace has long been established, along with the disabled because neither has been seen to be fully human in the same way as a man, because women may become pregnant and want maternity needs and the disabled person may need special needs or possibly fall ill. In reality able-bodied men may need paternity needs or fall ill, however this is not seen as likely for them and they provide the marker for how all other persons should be treated, even if disabled . This seems to be irrational thinking, but still a major concern with employers today, especially in relation to promotions and redundancies , yet the EAT has ruled that redundancies cannot occur due to disability, the question of reasonable adaptations have to be taken into account . The extent of reasonable adaptations was questioned in Kenny v Hampshire Constabularywhere it was determined that they are only reasonable in the doing of the job and easily adaptable but not to personal needs. In addition the employer has a defence of justificationagainst reasonable adaptation which makes the notion of reasonable adaptation pointless and returns to the objective marker as being the able bodied man , because the reasonable adaptation cases are too contradictory. This was recognized in Heinz v Kendrickwere it made a positive move forward in ensuring disability rights. . In 2001 this seems to have been tightened with the Cosgrove Casewhere it was held that an employer who fails to consider making adjustments as required by DDA 1995 s.6 cannot escape liability for that failure simply on the basis that the disabled employee was unable to suggest an appropriate adjustment. It has also been question what stipulates disabled, one test is the evidence of medical experts and not the opinion of the employer and tribunal; hence iterating an objective medical test . In Goodwin v Patent Officeit was held that: The Tribunal was wrong to focus on the fact that Mr Goodwin could cope unaided at home, and to assume from this that he therefore fell outside the definition of disability in the Act. The evidence was that Mr Goodwin was unable to hold a normal conversation, behaved strangely at times and had significantly impaired concentration. All this clearly pointed, on a broad and purposive interpretation of the Act, to his being disabled under the law. In Cruickshank v VAW Motorcarsa test was created to include various forms of disability, in addition to include the subjectivity of the individual as different disabilities or illness affect individuals in different manner; so the effect of the individual as well as the disability at the time of discrimination is taken into account. These cases should be taken into the education system to ensure along the same vein that teachers are endeavoring to integrate Dyspraxic children into the foundational levels of the education system, rather than leaving them on the side. This is key to the self-esteem and the development of a child who is of average or above intelligence but has problems in expression. In order to do this the child needs to be afforded substantive rights to appropriate education, much in the same way that the argument from home schoolers bases their argument; however as the discussion will illustrate the home-schooling or specialized education may be the only route if the appropriate attention and development of the education system is not attended to. The following section will consider some of the ethical literature with the problem of integration, if appropriate teaching methods and educational standard is not being afforded to children at the foundation levels (and beyond). Problems with Integration: The results may prove that it is not impossible for children with Dyspraxia to be integrated into the mainstream education system. Yet as the results also suggest although it is possible to integrate children with Dyspraxia into the mainstream education system it may not be in the best interests of the child. Also the other children in the system and the teacher have to be considered because if the teacher is not properly educated in teaching children with disabilities this means that the child will not receive the benefits of the integration, also either this child or the rest of the children will be deprived of the teachers attention. Also this may also add further stresses on the teachers resources and may impose too many duties on the teacher. As Aquinas points out the most important aspect about learning and education is self-development the attainment of the individuals perfection. This cannot always be dictated by mainstream education; therefore this discussion will introduce this angle into the conversation, which will be focused on the discussion. The union of soul and body is no chastisement of the soul but a salutary bond through which the human soul will reach its full perfection. This is not a theory forged expressly for the particular case of the soul. Rather, it is the case which is necessarily governed according to metaphysical principles, and their scope is universal. The less perfect is ordered toward the more perfect as toward its end; it is for it; not against it Each creature exists for its own act and its own perfection. Individuals exist for the perfection of the universe The reason for the existence of a determined substance or determined mode of existence is never to be found in an evil but in a good. This analysis of the human, as represented by Aquinas, as argued by Gilson portrays a notion of a higher purpose for each individual. This purpose links to the soul and is an integral part of Gods creation. Aquinas theory is entrenched in religious thought from the Catholic Church of the 13th Century; where science, theology, philosophy and politics where within the churchs domain and the central belief is that man was created for Gods purpose and life and death was His domain. The following exploration will consider the theological and philosophical concerns of Aquinas in relation to the individual and the idea of the body and life and attaining knowledge through education. The theological concern of Aquinas theory is the attainment of perfection, because in the nature of being each is at a different level of perfection with God as the Supreme Being. This is a very important part of Aquinas five ways, the basis of his cosmological and teleological arguments. Therefore this provides a modicum of self-determination at the hands of God; however humanity unlike the rest of Gods creations has been given freewill in order to attain a higher level of understanding and development to become further within the image of God, such as the occurrence within the Garden of Eden and the eating of the apple. In short Aquinas theory demonstrates that humanity was given freewill and the ability to attain knowledge in order to achieve the determined level of knowledge, perfection and understanding akin to the level of God; it is this that creates man in Gods image and it is such understanding which allows for the furtherance of scientific discovery; however there are problems when humanity intervenes into the sanctity of life and the determination of life and death; which is the domain of the Necessary Being, the Creator. Therefore how does this apply to schooling and education? The answer is specialized and integrated schooling is the best method for attaining this self-perfection, if non-integrated schooling is better then the arguments surrounding the notion of social development is null and void. As this chapter of the discussion will illustrate the method that is better method for children to retain knowledge and attain the goal of perfection. This discussion will aim to introduce the validity of integrating into mainstream education at the foundation level, because if is the method that the government wishes to take it should take into consideration not only if the teaching methods are available but whether this is in the best interests of the child especially when there are so many social problems in school; if this is going to hinder the childs development, especially one with a learning difficulty as Dyspraxia. So considering the arguments of cultural relativists will hopefully put the problem of mainstream integration into context because it takes away the specific needs of the culture; however this can be applied in the context where culture can be replaced by the society/community of children with Dyspraxia. The arguments from cultural relativists are the main set of criticisms of universal human rights, i.e. all laws and human development is focused on the rules and traditions of each culture and society. The first and most basic of rights freedom and autonomy in a secular state is criticized as very Eurocentric and fails to allow for cultural differences.The main part of universal human rights theory is based upon morality and the cultural relativist would argue that morality is subject to the culture, history and religious founding of each society.Therefore there are no human rights absolutes, that the principles which we may use for judging behaviour are relative to the society in which we are raised, that there is infinite cultural variability and that all cultures are morally equal or valid. This argument undermines the basis of all human rights theory because they all stem from the basis that there is a universal morality.Also it would view non-citizens as an area that each culture would deal with its own cultural norms.The main argument against universality in the 20th and 21st Centuries comes from the resistance to Western Economic Imperialism. Shestackillustrates Claude Levi-Strauss argument in the following manner all cultures and their differences need to be respected as equally moral to that of the West and that the Universality angle is just another attempt of the West imposing its morality on other cultures, which he believed must be stopped as other cultures should be allowed to develop and evolve naturally. Most would agree that the West should not impose its views, governance and culture upon other cultures.Human rights theorists are arguing that morality is outside and transcends these human constructions and is common to all persons, and not part of the development of a society, as cultural relativists would argue.Is it fair that in the name of cultural identity that repression should be allowed causing an obligatory homogeneity and diminishing the place of the individual in the calculus of identity politics?The most common answer would be no, no-one is saying that cultural identity should be obliterated instead that it is not part of the transcendental nature of the morality of basic human rights and freedoms.These rights and freedoms are not there to suppress culture but should be the logical ends for a culture to aspire to.As Shestackargues that violations of individuals rights are not affirmed in any valid culture and in fact the religions and culture basis itself on acting for t he good of its people and most confirmed relativist scholars are repulsed at practises which are highly coercive and abusive and accept that at least some human rights values are absolute. However, on the whole, the rights and development of each individual from a child is based upon the cultural norms, i.e. development is relative. The main attack on Universalism is the argument of cultural relativism; it has been argued that there are no universals and all rights are from the construction of society and culture.Therefore if women are treated inferior to their male counterparts, this is the construction of that society and the Western ideals have no right to interfere, as long as the women consent. This begs the question because there is no consent if a system has been biased against your identity for generations. The cultural relativist argument is so bound in the fact that basic universality comes from the Western Liberal tradition, that it has not taken time out to look at Eastern cultures and what they say are basic to the human being, although that discourse may not be based on autonomy or individuality, certain key ideas come through. Although not all cultures speak in the discourse of autonomy, arguably they do have the concept of equality and respect that indicates there are rights outside the culture and afforded to people on the essence of being human. Therefore if one assumes that culture equates to the community of Dyspraxic children then it is entirely possible that their needs will not be met in mainstream education. The discussion will further this and aim to show that this is not always the case with respect to the rights of the child and the rights of the teacher in mind. Chapter 3 Design of Study: This study is considering the approaches as well as the justification of integrating children with Dyspraxia in to the mainstream education system as the foundation level, as opposed to giving specialized teaching and integrating at a later stage. In order to do this is will discuss the practical adaptation to include children at the foundation level by considering a range of sources throughout the world that have provided teaching methods for children with Dyspraxia. These sources are internet based as the internet gives the widest range and up to date information on the teaching of children with Dyspraxia. This study has also considered the benefits of fitting children in the mainstream education system and asking the question whether this is in the best interests of the child, especially with the amount of literature suggesting that other forms of schooling, such as home schooling is a better option especially in a world where morals are degrading. This information is primarily from North America as a lot more home schooling is undertaken, in addition when considering the best interests of the child it is important to consider their rights and choices; as well as the parents, i.e. is it right to impose integration into the foundation system if it is not in the best interests of the child? Therefore an ethical, legal and social perspective has been considered. The rest of this study will now consider whether the aforementioned literature provides a system to whether the teaching methods of integrating children with Dyspraxia would be successful and even so would it be in the best inter ests of the child. Chapter 4 Methodology: This discussion will be from a theoretical level comparing and contrasting the different avenues presented to the state on the question whether to impose teaching methods to include children Dyspraxia into mainstream foundation curriculum or to provide specialized teaching. This discussion has assumed that this routine questioning necessarily imposes such a duty therefore the discussion surrounds the legal and ethical consequences of such a duty. This discussion is from a theoretical perspective and has not dealt with quantitative data; rather it deals with a qualitative approach considering the human rights, ethical and legal questions that arise from imposing teaching strategies to integrate children with Dyspraxia at the foundation level. It presupposes that such teaching methods if beneficial to the child will be imposed by the state. It excludes the possibility that the state will not impose these teaching even if it is the most beneficial course of action to the child. Also it does not include a quantitative and statistical approach to the question. The search for studies and appropriate research material is done via identifying four types of discussion area; the teaching methods that are available to the teacher; the impacts of the childs rights of imposing integration v the child rights if the child experiences specialized teaching; the legal implications of imposing new teaching methods and integration; and ethical considerations. The method of enquiry is as follows examining the problems and benefits of mainstream integration for all children, which may be exacerbated if the child is suffering from Dyspraxia. Then it considers the teaching methods that mainstream integration may utilize. Finally it will consider some of the legal, ethical and social problems of such integration; whereby a duty is imposed by the state to use teaching methods to integrate children into mainstream education at the foundation level curriculum. One also must consider the effects of these teaching methods on the children without the learning disability and the effects and possible additional stress on the teacher. This leads to considerations and consequences in the areas of human rights, the law and ethics will be the focus of the discussion. Chapter 5 Statement of Results: The results point to that as long as the appropriate teaching methods are being applied then integration is the best solution. Yet if the education system is degrading as the following proponents of home schooling advance then it is not in the best interests of the child to integrate at the foundation level because this essential to the whole of the childs educational future. The methods range from the simple, i.e. more attention, patience to aiding with reading and other methods of expression to the more technological, i.e. special computers, tape recordings and machines. The problem lies in whether the teacher can get these specialized technologies or has the time to spend extra time with a specific child. This may have a detrimental effect on the other children in the class; however if this special attention is not given then the child will be restricted and hindered and the most foundational years and methods of learning have been lost. This would then lead to the support of specialized teaching that home schoolers purport. The following discussion will explore this further. Chapter 6 Discussion: Integrating the child in the foundation level of education may or may not be beneficial to the child as it may hinder the long-term education of the child. Therefore prior to exploring the teaching strategies necessary to integrate children with Dyspraxia in the foundation level of the national curriculum, because if these teaching methods hinder the childs development then the teaching strategies have failed. In order to do this the literature surrounding the benefits of mainstream education, over specialized or home-schooling will be explored in the following discussion. Benefits v Disadvantages of Integration: Human beings have been sharing information and skills, and passing along to children whatever they knew, for about a thousand years now. Along the way they have built some very complicated and highly skilled societies. During all those years there were very few teachers in the sense of people whose only work was teaching others what they knew. And until very recently there were no people at all who were trained in teaching as such. People always understood, sensibly enough, that before you could teach something you had to know it yourself. But only very recently did human beings get the extraordinary notion that in order to be able to teach what you knew; you had to spend years being taught how to teach . Holt is an ardent believer in home schooling and proposes it has no effect on social development; rather it is a better method because it teaches children the reality of life, i.e. the juggling lifestyle with work and learning. In fact Holt proposes that it is the void of institutionalism of education that impedes social development . In addition Holt argues that home study teaches children about individualism and enhances their respect and understanding and human rights . However there are critics of Holts proposal and argue that such schooling teaches children that their individual needs are more important than the larger society and impedes the goals of democracy. Yet a question of social development in the modern world is inherently tied into childrens understanding of human rights and respect for the individuals; as well as adherence to law and governance in respect to promoting a civil society. However if home schooling was eliminated then the rights of the individual would be ignored and a move towards institutionalism and a void like understanding of humanity and social development would be created. Also if one connects such arguments to the essence of humanity, the best method for education and development of ones intellect should be followed, which is an objective goal. Also the argument from Franzosa is purely a westernized view of education and the combating views of democracy and individualism may not be appropriate in all cultures. Therefore this causes one to refer to cultural relativism, but as the previous argument shows individualism and human rights are present in all cultures. In short home schooling can aid children to respect and promote individualism and human rights within the context of their culture, rather than the objective, anti-social institutions of modern education. The problems of the anti-social system will be highlighted in the following discussions; as well as illustrating the problems with the development of children socially. This has resulted in a situation where; children are intimidated and bullied by other childrens anti-social behaviour; children lose the value of learning and the promotion of their intellect; parents become criminally liable for their childrens truancy even if they take all reasonable steps to promote attendance; children take guns into school and murder their peers on the masses; children are not taught to respect others human rights because these rights are eroded by the institution they attend; cultural learning and religion is eroded by a so called value-neutral approach, which in fact promotes westernized ideals; and the fairness and justice do not play apart in this institution. Therefore maybe Holt is right in his promotion of home schooling as an effective remedy for the problems in childrens social development.Franzosa argues that this argument is too simplified and a more complex, multifaceted approach to institutional education is necessary. Holts advocacy of a single solution to the multiplicity of problems we now face in education is nave and misleading. Further, the social thesis he uses to support that solution signifies a retreat from any collective consideration of educational ideals and a dismissal of the idea that communities have any educational responsibilities to their members.Rights are an especially problematic notion in the context of education.Thus within the framework of European Community law, the assertion of individual rights for the purposes of enforcement of obligations contained in Directives appears to be heavily constrained.Likewise, human rights perspectives introduced into UK domestic law under the Human Rights Act 1998 are likely to have a limited impact in the educational context. Rights in the context of the home schoolers have always been a source of contention between those advocating the right to choose home school and the law makers. To understand the fundamental principles of human rights one must look at the period surrounding the Enlightenment because this is the time when the individual became an important entity, no longer was the individual part of a class on a hierarchical structure, with rights relating to that class.The natural rights theorists aim was to show that man was born in a state of nature, and given the right to do as he/she wished as in accordance with the sanctity of human life, but this was sacrificed to the governance of the land, i.e. that the rational man would give up the state of freedom, for the security and safety of law, governance and sovereignty . Kants argument, which is more commonly known as Kants ethic , tries to get away from the needs, desires and wants, which are the basis of the rights from the state of nature.Instead it is an a priori ethic, which transcends all needs, desires, wants, purposes and end.In other words it is not part of human construction. In modern theories there are different strands of this Kantian argument; however they all base round a transcendental need for the autonomous nature of the individual to be free in society. Dworkin notion of human rights is as trumps; his theory will now be discussed in further detail. The basis for Dworkins endorsement of human rights is that every government must ensure that its citizens are given equality of respect and concern.Therefore the end of Dworkins means (of respect and concern) is basic human rights and freedoms.If the government does not have the means then there is no valid argument for these basic rights and freedoms in the framework of Dworkins theory. This theory unlike McDougals argument from dignity is not individualistic but in a more utilitarian frame and hence is promoting the general welfare of the society and focuses on the essence of personhood. Dworkin main focus is on the sanctity of the essence of the human life as the key factor for governmental protection. Therefore the quality of life can be sacrificed to ensure that every human life in the state is protected by the government. Dworkin does not champion the vague aspiration of liberty but more specific rights, such as the freedoms provided for in human rights treaties and conventions, e.g., speech, assembly, freedom, religionThese freedoms are the core to Dworkins theory and cannot be interfered with by the government; these rights are essential to ensure the general welfare of the society.Dworkins reasoning for not allowing government intervention is to ensure equal respect and concern; one must take into account external preferences that cause inequality, hence resulting in prejudice and discrimination that naturally arise in a modern multi-cleavaged society. Therefore to ensure these preferences do not override the general welfare of the society and individuals welfare certain key rights and the government, which in reality will reflect the majority not the minorities of society, cannot interfere with freedoms. Dworkins theory seems to encompass and amalgamate freedoms and rights with both autonomy and the general welfare of the society, which seems to incorporate ideas that the modern society wants to include without sacrificing one to other. Yet Dworkin purports universal human rights, stemming from respect and concern for others; which forms the base-line of his theory. Theorists such as McDougalwho believe that human rights are the ends of ensuring human dignity and worth and important to ensure that co-operation in the society is in the aid of dignity and human rights.The theorists have made a list of basic rights, needs and demands to ensure this dignity; however the top needs are respect, power, autonomyThese are the basic rights and freedoms that other human rights theories are aiming for.However this argument is not far from the core rights theorists, natural rights theorists and even the argument from justice and open to their criticisms.Also the form and lists of the elements and concept of dignity as described is based in a European religious beliefs and even the secular arguments have the tone of a Eurocentric belief system.However dignity is a concept in all cultures. Therefore as a parent of a child they should have the right to choose the method of development and the attaining perfection, i.e. knowledge. It should not be the governments determination but the parents in the case of a young child Modern utilitarian theorists have extended the theory of Bentham, but have put it in more modern terms.Instead of maximising the pleasures and desires of the individual the government would be maximising the general welfare of individuals therefore minimising frustration of wants and preferences . Therefore what one can see is that the governing bodies must put the general welfare first, yet minimise the individuals needs therefore causing a conflict of rights between what is in the name of the society and what the individual wants.The problems with this theory is it is socially constructed, there is no autonomy of being and no argument for universal rights that transcend all cultures and religions, therefore falling short of what is needed for an all-encompassing human rights theory, as the general welfare can be different for differing cultures. Rawls in his thesis for engendering human rights states that justiceis the prime basis of all government and to ensure justice human rights are the obvious means and end to ensure justice is fulfilled.Rawls theory is based on a few key ideas, which are the rights and duties of government/institution of society and the burdens and benefits of citizens co-operating. Rawls bases his theory that each individual has an inherent and inviolable being set in justice this being cannot be overridden for the welfare of the society.This theory does not fall foul to the arguments against modern utilitarianism.Rawls does use the social contract fiction of Hobbes and Locke, however the basis of moving from ignorance (state of nature) is reason and this reason set up on principles of justice that his social contract is based upon.These principles are; 1) that each person has basic rights and liberties in accordance with freedom; and 2) there is distributive justice, where inequalities are restraine d by the greatest benefit of least advantaged and each person has the condition of fair equality of opportunity.These principles cannot be derogated for the public good and liberty is the supreme principle. Therefore the parent should only have a limited right to choose if the welfare of the child and future social development is threatened, i.e. the government should step in and regulate the choice between home schooling and education in an institution. This means if the better option of education is in an institution then home schooling should be denied. The third part of Article 3 of the ECHR is protection from degrading treatment/punishment: Starmer describes this as degrading if it arouses in the victim a feeling of fear, inferiority capable of humiliating and debasing the victim and possibly breaking his/her physical or moral resistance. In order for punishment to be degrading and in breach of Article 3, the humiliation or debasement involved must attain a particular level of severity and must in any event be other than that usual element of humiliation inherent in any punishment .This area is where cases are decided upon their facts and can include; racial harassment , corporal punishment ; gross remarks that are defaming ; and police surveillance that borders on the extreme and unrelenting ; not allowing a person to change their clothes which have been dirtied by their own defecation ; and insufficient medical treatment for a serious illness . Also in these cases the vulnerability of the victim is essential, because if they are weaker in any manner this reduces the minimum standard to that class of persons . In the present era of bullying and intimidation of some children at school, parents have turned to protecting their child by removing them from institutions and educating them at home. This has been further the case since intimidation at schools is on the rise and the availability of punishment of trouble makers has been limited. The extent to which the school system is in crisis is that anti-social behavior orders can be made in schools and parents are becoming liable civilly and criminally for their childs truancy and behavior at school. Therefore this presents an effective argument for parents to home school in order for their children to attain knowledge and perfection, without the fear and intimidation that occurs at the hands of the less respectable members of the school community. In short do we want to possibly further hinder the community of children with Dyspraxia, without giving specialized teaching at the foundation level in order for integration to be complete. The above discussion has illustrated the problems with the current institutional system; as well as covering important concepts concerning development, such as the achievement of intellect and the cultural aspects of development. The current education system is the root of problems in respect to social development; therefore home schooling is regarded as an appropriate remedy. However such action is not appropriate for all families, which creates major implications for the future of childrens social development, i.e. creating a system where individuals are not respected and a totalitarian view of governance is the only method. As well as a place of possible fear for pupils and teachers and discipline is limited to a point where the parents become civilly and criminally liable for their childrens actions. Therefore creating a system that will overload and education, learning and social development is no longer an enjoyment; rather it is a chore forced upon individuals in a void, without the influences of cultural and religious learning. In short there needs to be an upheaval of the current system in order to promote other avenues for effective social development, which combines the large social integration with the principles that Holt proposes that home schooling brings to the childs development. This is because Holts view is too simplistic, which is also the view of the current educational system and possibly the reason that childrens social development is broken down: Franzosa focuses on Holts view of the irreconcilable conflict between the natural individual [child] and the oppressive and corrupting effects of organized social life What Franzosa identifies in Holt is in fact a romantic individualism that is as much a part of American thought as it is incompatible with social democratic theory These polarities of the individual good and the good of all that Franzosa identifies in Holts work take us to the heart of a tension that defines the public school system and many of the debates about it. One also has to consider whether it is affecting the social development of the child because to be taken out of the social structure of mainstream education at the lowest levels and then to integrate at a higher level may have long-standing effects on the childs social development especially with respect to bullying. This may create a void in the childs life. Also if one refers back to the basic idea that the Dyspraxia Association of New Zealand purported is: If you treat the child the same as the others, his failure rate will be immeasurably higher than it needs to be. He knows that he is not the same; a higher failure rate means a very much lower self esteem, etc., etc If there is no availability of modifications then the home schoolers argument is right; however the Dyspraxia Association of New Zealand is purporting integration but modifications provided by the teachers. This is to allow the child to learn to cope and integrate with the so called normal populace, which is important for foundational social development. Therefore the government should be providing and enforcing the resources and techniques for dealing with Dyspraxic children in the same way that they enforce the modifications for disabled persons in the work place. The regulations incorporated into the DDA 1995 in 2003 have gone further than inclusion of the excluded sectors it also gives legal rights from harassment, practical work placements and prohibition of disability discrimination. One must note that this better than the 1995 Act, however it only marginally equalizes the playing field with other disadvantaged groups such as women and it has been recognized that substantive rights are necessary.The government is suggesting a Draft Discrimination Disability Bill which will extend civil rights to disabled persons; however the problem with this approach are that disabled persons are citizens therefore should be extended the civil rights of citizens, but the government feels it is necessary to extend disabled persons civil rights? This is a very confusing prospect, because it means that disabled persons are not citizens or that they are lesser citizens such as children, which is wrong and should be equalized in the education system; especiall y in respect to ensuring that the appropriate level of education is enforced for children such as those with Dyspraxia. It is not enough to have possible teaching methods that conclude integration at the foundation level is possible because they may be ignored or used incorrectly. There should be a legal requirement to enforce these modifications if it is impossible then specialized teaching with slow integration should be advanced. In order to this substantive rights should be provided to these disabled children. In this sense it is necessary to advance substantive rights to these groups which properly level the playing field rather than affording rights which already are present as has been suggested by Ratna Kapur and Brenda Cossman: [Substantive equality] takes into account inequalities of social, economic and educational background of people and seeks the elimination of existing inequalities by positive measures The central enquiry of this approach is whether the rule or practice in question contributes to the subordination of the disadvantaged group. Accordingly discrimination consists of the treatment of disadvantages or further oppresses a group that has historically experienced institutional and systemic oppression. Conclusion: Therefore as the Learning Disabilities Association of America argue integration into the mainstream will provide children with disabilities, at the foundation level and beyond a balanced educational and social development as long as basic principles are applied; as well as intense educational methods which are reduced as the childs expression of comprehension develops and improves. The basic techniques are similar to the Dyspraxia Association of New Zealands approach, where the Learning Disabilities Association of America advises of the following techniques to teaching children with learning disabilities and the classroom as a whole: Figure Two Learning Techniques for Children with Learning Disabilites: a.broke learning into small steps; b.administered probes; c.supplied regular quality feedback; d.used diagrams, graphics and pictures to augment what they were saying in words; e.provided ample independent, well-designed, intensive practice; f.modeled instructional practices that they wanted students to follow; g.provided prompts of strategies to use; and h.engaged students in process type questions like How is that strategy working? Where else might you apply it? Bibliography Dyspraxia and Teaching: Australian Dyspraxia Support Group Dyspraxia Association of New Zealand, Teaching, Belinda Hill, Technological Aides and Children with DVD, can be found at the Dyspraxia Foundation of Ireland Learning Disabilities Association of America, Teachers, Human Rights Theory: Upendra Baxi, The Future of Human Rights, (Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2002) Edmund Burke,Reflections on the Revolution in France, (Hackett, Indianapolis, 1987) ed. J.G.A. Pocock Edmund Cahn, The Sense of Injustice, An Anthropological View of the Law, (NY University Press, NY, 1949) J. Donnelly, The Concept of Human Rights, 1985 International Organization 40(3) 599-642 Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously, (Duckworth, London, 1978) T. Evans, The Politics ofHuman Rights, (Pluto Press, London. 2001) Michael Freeman, Human Rights: An Interdisciplinary Approach, (Polity Press, Cambridge, 2002) C.J. 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Dworkin (1977) Taking Rights Seriously London, Duckworth Helen Fenwick (2002), Civil Liberties and Human Rights, London, Cavendish PMS Hacker and J Raz (eds) (1977a) Law Morality and Society, (Oxford, Clarendon Press) Andrew Halpin, DPhil (1997), Rights and Law: Analysis and Theory, Oxford, Hart HLA Hart (1982) Legal Rights in HLA Hart Essays on Bentham: Jurisprudence and Political Theory, Oxford, Clarendon Press T Hobbes (1991) Leviathan (edited Richard Tuck) Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Wesley N. Hohfeld (1923) Fundamental Legal Conceptions: as applied in judicial reasoning (ed WW Cook) New Haven, Yale University Press Wesley N. Hohfeld (2001), Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning, Aldershot, Ashgate AM Honore (1960) Rights of Exclusion and Immunities against Divesting, 34 Tulane Law Review Walter Kamba (1974) Legal Theory and Hohfelds Analysis of a Legal Right, 19 Judicial Review 249 I Kant (2003) Critique of Pure Reason (Translated by Norman Kemp Smith) 2nd Edition Basingstoke, Palgrave Matthew H. Kramer (1998), A Debate Over Rights: Philosophical Enquiries, Oxford, Clarendon Matthew H. Kramer Rights Without Trimmings, in Matthew H. Kramer (1998), A Debate Over Rights: Philosophical Enquiries, Oxford, Clarendon W Kymlicka (1989) Liberalism, Community and Culture Oxford, Oxford University Press W Kymlicka (2002) Contemporary Political Philosophy: an Introduction (2nd Edition), Oxford, Oxford University Press J. 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Munro (1999) Studies in Constitutional Law (Second Edition), London, Butterworths NM Selwyn (2000) Selwyns Law of Employment (11th Edition), London, Butterworths IT Smith GH Thomas (2000) Smith Woods Industrial Law (7th Edition), London, Butterworths Josephine Steiner Lorna Woods, Textbook on EC Law, ( Blackstone Press, Gosport Hants, 2001) United Nations Economic and Social Council (2003) National and International Co-operation for Social Development: Impact of Employment Strategies on Social Development, Commission for Social Development 41st Session 10-21st February 2003 UN, Employment Policy Convention; Convention (No 122) concerning employment policy 1964, Article 1 Worldwatch Institute (2004) State of World 2004: Progress Towards a Sustainable Society, London, Earthscan Disability Rights: Barton L, 1996, Disability and Society Longmen Brading,J and Curtis J, 2000, Disability Discrimination 2nd ed. Kogan Davis J, 2003 ACuckoo in the nest? A Range of reasonable responses, justification and the disability discrimination act 1995 in Bowers J. QC, Moran E. and Honeyball S, 2003 Justification Indirect Sex Discrimnation: A reply Davis P, EC. Equality and diversity: The way ahead Vol29. No .4. Doyle,B, 2003, Disability discrimination: law and practise 4th ed. Jordons Doyle B Disabled Workers Right, and Disability Discrimiantion Act and the UN Standard Rules Industrial Law Journal Vol31.No2. Drake,R Understanding Disability Policies MacMillian 1999. DRC Europa (EU) McAuley R Knight L. Discrimination law enabling disabled applicants ELJ 2003 42 Phillips G, 2000, Disability Round up Part 2 Employers 2003, 107 RNID SENSE Thompsons Solicitors, 1999, A Patent Case of Disability, Thompsons Journal Issue 31 Thompsons Solicitors, 2000, Disabled in the Soup with Insipid Justification Test, Thompsons Journal Issue 45 Home Schooling and Integration Problems: DfES Website DfES Higher Education Website DfES Parent Centre Website DfES, Parenting Orders Dworkin R. Rights as Trumps, in J Waldron Theories of Rights, (1984, New York, Oxford University Press) Dworkin R. Taking Rights Seriously, (1977, London, Duckworth) H. Fenwick, 2002, Civil Liberties and Human Rights (3rd Edition), London, Cavendish J. Finnis (1982) Natural Law and Natural Rights, Oxford, Clarendon E. Fortin (1987) St Thomas Aquinas in L. Strauss J. 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Purchase New Protection Gloves For The Employees Of...

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Although MBUSA was founded in 1965, importation of Mercedes-Benz vehicles actually began in 1952 under Max Hoffman. Mr. HoffmanRead MoreNEBOSH Diploma unit D assignment19487 Words   |  78 Pagesit is clear that there is an excellent health and safety culture within the organisation and a high level of commitment from all levels towards the goal of health and safety excellence. This commitment was reflected in the high level of compliance (88%) to the best practices set out in the OHSAS 18001 standard. For a company to build such strong systems in the short period (5 years) since the company was established is commendable The Management System review process identified a number of opportunities

The Art of Public Speaking

Question: Discuss about theArt of Public Speaking. Answer: Introduction One of the most important features of public speaking is the capability of connecting with the audience, through eye contact and body language. According to Norman Thomas, there is a vast difference between written words and spoken words ("Dos and Taboos of Public Speaking" 2017). Reading out a speech fails to influence the audience. The disadvantages of reading a speech are as follows- The speaker most of the time fails to maintain an eye contact with the audience. Reading a speech also poses the danger of repeating or missing a word. Reading a speech sounds monotonous and the spontaneity of the speaker is lost in the process. On the other hand, reading a speech also has certain advantages, it makes the speaker feel confident enough, it also ensures that all the points related to the topic are covered and no omission is made. The speaker does not divert from the topic and the records of the speech are maintained (Lucas, 2008). Reading a speech is considered appropriate and advantageous only in certain context such as while presenting an idea to the media, responding to a lawsuit or commenting on some very sensitive issue. In such situations, reading a speech is a necessary in order to maintain a record and to avoid any miscommunication. If I were asked to give a speech in public or some institutions, I would present the speech extemporaneously, because it brings spontaneity and helps in connecting with the audience. However, in case of addressing any legal or sensitive issue, I would prepare my speech in advance and read from it in order to avoid any kind of miscommunication. Ethics involves dealing with the issues of wrong and right in human affairs. According to Plato, the Greek philosopher, every public speaker must be truthful, honest and devoted to the good of society (Lucas, 2008). However, it is evident from history that the power of speech is abused frequently; often leading to disastrous results and thus, speech must be guided by a powerful sense of ethical integrity. While addressing an issue one should also keep in mind whether the goals are ethically sound or not. In addition to this, according to Jenkin Lloyd Jones, it is also the responsibility of a speaker to prepare his speech carefully before addressing the public because time is a valuable factor and a badly prepared speech is an utter wastage of time for both the speaker and the audience (Attias et al., 2016). While addressing an issue on the impact of migration in Singapore, on must keep the sentiments of his friends and co-workers in mind by following an ethical way of speaking. Excessive immigration has become a problem for Singapore and to address the issues faced by Singapore, one must avoid abusive or attacking language and emphasis on the problems rather than on the overseas people present there. The tone of voice while communicating the problem should also be set right, so that it does not betray your emotional motivation behind the said words (Esenwein, 2013). References: Attias, B., Goding, A., Wrench, J., Johnson, D. (2016). Stand Up, Speak Out: The Practice and Ethics of Public Speaking. Dos and Taboos of Public Speaking. (2017). Scribd. Retrieved 28 February 2017, from https://www.scribd.com/doc/60200936/Dos-and-Taboos-of-Public-Speaking Esenwein, J. B. (2013).The Art of Public Speaking. Read Books Ltd. Retrieved from https://mapage.noos.fr/hbiszbest/som/The_Art_of_Public_Speaking.pdf Lucas, S. E. (2008).The Art of Public Speaking 11th Edition. McGraw-Hill. Retrieved from https://osa.uark.edu/pdfs/poised-public-speaking.pdf

Superpower Relations and the Thaw in the Cold War Essay Example

Superpower Relations and the Thaw in the Cold War Essay The Post-Stalin Thaw and the bid for PeacefulCo-Existence?1953-1961In the 1950s the Cold War, although in many ways the same, was changing in character* Globalization of the Cold War* Nuclear Arms Race* Stalin’s death in ’53 and the ThawHowever, a more thorough relation of tensions – dà ©tente – was not to emerge until after the shocks of the Berlin crisis ’61 and more particularly the Cuban Missile Crisis ‘62Timeline of coexistence and confrontation characterising 1953 – 611951 – Churchill elected PM, and in a surprise move from his reputation as a ‘Cold War warrior’ pressed for a summit with the Soviet Union to end the Cold War.November 1952 – Election of Eisenhower, reflecting a ‘hardening of US attitudes’March 1953 – Death of Stalin, the politburo avoided one person consolidating power and confirmed the collective leadership of Malenkov, Molotov, Beria, Bulganin and Khrushchev. Policy of destalinisation introducedJuly 1953 – End of the Korean War. It had a traumatising effect on the US population with 32,629 US killed, 103,284 injured and the deaths of 3m aprox. Korean civies.* American anger was reflected in the policies of Dulles – rollback and massive retaliation* Limitations of these policies demonstrated by the lack of a US response to Soviet suppression of protest in East Germany (1953) and more significantly Hungary (1956)August 1953 – PM Malenkov recommended a policy of ‘peaceful coexistence’ with the West1954 – Eisenhower’s Domino theory announcedJuly 1955 – First summit since Potsdam held in Geneva. No agreements made but the friendly atmosphere was dubbed ‘the spirit of Geneva’, raising the possibility of future concord.February 1956 – Khrushchev’s ‘secret speech’ dramatically extended destalinisation by condemning Stalin’s rule in a closed meeting of the Communist Party.1957 – Eisenhower Doctrine. In conjunction with Domino Theory, ‘Roll Back’ and ‘Massive Retaliation’ extended US military alliances world-wide in an attempt to firmly contain communism.1958 – Khrushchev emerges as head of Soviet StateSeptember 1959 – Hopes for the possibility of peaceful coexistence raised by the success of a second summit held at Camp David.May 1960 – U2 Spy Plane Incident. Soviet walkout at the third summit in Paris ended both the summit and hopes for ‘peaceful coexistence’1961 – Berlin Crisis. Marked the return of the Cold WarWhat changes took place in superpower relations between1948-1955Prior to 1950 the Cold War had developed due to the circumstances arising from the post-war world and had been focused on Europe.The Development of Globalism* Communist takeover of China in 1949 turned attention to the far-east* Korean War (1950-1953) and events in Vietnam in 1954* Euro pean decolonisation resulted in newly independent states appearing in the ‘third world’: needing financial assistance coupled with the fear that other superpowers would take the opportunity to extend their influence if they did not the Cold War developed into conflict on a global scale.The Nuclear Arms Race* In 1949 the USSR developed its own atomic bomb, shaking US confidence in the process at the speed at which the Soviets had developed a nuclear capability.* The US not only considerably increased its conventional weaponry during the Korean War* But developed the thermonuclear bomb in 1952 and the hydrogen bomb in 1954* The USSR developed its own hydrogen bomb less than a year later* The development of harnessing nuclear weaponry to missiles gave the arms race on an increasingly destructive and dangerous dimensionThe ‘Thaw’* After 1953 (Stalin’s death) there was a collective awareness of the need for East-West dialogue* Leadership of both USA and U SSR recognised the importance of avoiding/limiting conflict where possible* Diplomatic attempts to establish a dialogue between the superpowers led to the ‘thaw’ in the Cold War.The ‘thaw’ took on a paradoxical nature. Alongside the spread of conflict and the development of the arms race, superpower relations experienced a diplomatic ‘softening’ of relations; in comparison to the bitter antagonism of the early Cold War.What issues caused tension between the Superpowers in the period 1948-1955?Tensions between East and West remained strong during the time period, issues that had caused division in the early years were still present and continued to have the potential to provoke a crisis, yet the situation was also changing.The ‘German Problem’* Berlin blockade a failed attempt by Stalin to solve the ‘problem’* Ended hopes of German reunification, both sides were unhappy with the outcome and disputes continued over the s tatus of a reunited Germany.Rise of Communism in the Far East* Communist takeover of China in ’49 raised US fears of spread of Communism to far-east* Korean War ’50-’53 reinforced US perceptions of the aggressive and expansionist tendencies of the Soviet Union as Stalin was considered to behind Communist North Korea’s attack on the Capitalist south.* Rise of communism in Vietnam seemingly confirmed US suspicions.European Decolonisation* European no longer possessed the will nor the resources to retain their vast overseas empires.* The power vacuum left by the defeat of Nazi Germany had been filled by 1948* However, the process of decolonisation brought about another power vacuum in large parts of the ‘Third World’* Middle East – Area of particular strategic importance because of its oil supplies.* Had previously been in the control of France and Britain whom relinquished their control over the region after WW2* Both superpowers were ke en to not allow the other to exert its influence over the region* Israel was established as an independent country in 1948 with the British withdraw from Palestine* British troops were withdrawn from Egypt in 1955 despite continued Ango-French ownership of the Suez Canal* The developing hostility between Israel and the Arab states threatened to draw the Superpowers into conflict as they both sought to exert their influence over the region.* Indochina* French control was broken by the bloody defeat at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.* As the French withdrew, the USA became concerned about the spread of communism in the region.Soviet Actions in limiting Destalinisation* After Stalin’s death in ’53 Malenkov (the new Soviet PM) introduced the ‘New Course’* This policy allowed a limited degree of liberalism within the USSR* Terror and repression were partially relaxed* Khrushchev developed the policy of destalinisation further after 1956* Seeing the ‘New Courseâ₠¬â„¢ and relaxation of terror and repression occur in the Soviet Union, the communist states of Eastern Europe called for a similar liberalisation within their own regime.* Demonstrations broke out in Czechoslovakia, East Germany and Poland against governments that refused to move away from strict Stalinist policies.* The unrest was crushed by government troops, this appalled the West and condemned their actions but did not intervene directly. Raising tension* The use of Soviet troops to crush an uprising in Hungary brought about a similar response by the West and once again raised tension.The Arms Race* Both States took action to ensure they did not fall behind in their capacity to wage war.* The Arms Race was a cause and consequence of the tension of the Cold War* By the end of 1955 the USA had 560 strategic bombers to the USSR’s 60* So started the seemingly limitless and ironical arms race, whereby the Soviet’s attempt to catch up with the USA led to the US increasi ng arms output in fear of being overtaken by the Soviet Union.What factors promoted a ‘thaw’ in Superpower relations between 1948-1955After 1953 there were attempts to establish some dialogue between the superpowers, helped in part by the change in leadership of both the Soviet Union and the USA. However, the ‘thaw’ was the result of factors within the wider context of international relations that pushed both sides towards seeking some degree of accommodation with the other.The Consolidation of Positions* By 1949 the Iron Curtain marked a defined line between the two superpowers spheres of influence in Europe. Marking a border between the two different spheres of influence* The insecurity of the second half of the 1940’s had been caused by both sides attempting to mark out their areas of dominance.* By 1949, the division of Europe had become entrenched, the US military commitment to NATO was a strong indication to their commitment towards defending E urope from Communism. Whilst, the Warsaw Pact of 1955 symbolised Soviet commitment to protecting Eastern Europe from US imperialism.* The USA and USSR were forced to accept the resulting division of Europe and thus with their positions more secure the superpowers were more willing to attempt negotiation.Death of Stalin* Stalin was perceived in the West as the dominant factor in the development of the Cold War* Liberal Historians who have emphasised the role of personality have seen Stalin’s death as the determining factor in the development of the ‘thaw’.* During 1948-49 the initiative appeared to be getting away from the Soviet’s, failure of the Berlin blockade, the formation of NATO and the defection of Yugoslavia from COMINFORM were all failures for Stalin’s foreign policy. His death in 1953 provided the opportunity for a new soviet leadership to change its approach to the west.Beria* In the immediate aftermath of Stalin’s death it was unc lear to the West who was in charge of Soviet foreign policy, Beria, the long-serving head of the secret police took the initiative and offered the West a proposal for a reunified, neutral Germany.* Beria – ‘all we want is a peaceful Germany and it makes no difference to us whether or not it is socialist’* Beria’s motives may have been to distance himself from Stalin’s policies, or an attempt to impress his colleagues in the Politburo.* However his association with the terror of Stalin’s rule was too much for the other members of the Politburo and he was arrested within months: accused of being a British spy.* With the execution of Beria an opportunity to end the division of Germany was lost.Malenkov’s New Course* With the removal of Beria, Soviet foreign policy fell into the control of Malenkov who with Khrushchev and Bulganin formed a collective leadership.* Malenkov recognised the limitations of a hard-line approach of confrontation with the West and decided to embark on a ‘New Course’* Malenkov did not believe the war between capitalism and communism remained inevitable and that therefore resources could be directed away from arms and heavy industry and towards consumer goods and raising living standards within the USSR* There was still the belief that the collapse of capitalism was inevitable, but war was not needed to ensure its demise.* War was now a risky strategy with the advent of the nuclear age, and there were other safer methods that could be used to defend communism while waiting out the inevitable collapse of the capitalist system.* Khrushchev criticised Malenkov’s ‘New Course’ during his struggle for power, but when he achieved his objective he was to adopt and develop the ‘New Course’.Khrushchev and Peaceful Coexistence* Building on the ‘New Course’ Khrushchev articulated a new approach towards the West which became known as Peaceful Coexi stence* Khrushchev believed that the collapse of Capitalism was inevitable and therefore he saw Peaceful Coexistence was the best way of conducting relations in the meantime. Nuclear war was not worth the risk.* Khrushchev – ‘There are only two ways – either Peaceful Coexistence or the most destructive war in History. There is no third way’* He developed this theory between 1955-57 and by June 1957 he was firmly established as the leader of the Soviet Union and able to pursue this policy relatively unhindered.Eisenhower and Dulles* Eisenhower became president in 1952* His war record and his post as head of NATO allowed him more protection against McCarthyism and ‘being soft on communism’* Had the self-confidence from his military career to pursue his own policies and was a firm believer in face to face diplomacy.* ‘New Look’ was hard-line approach to foreign policy and won much support in the US* Dulles (secretary of state) talked of ‘rolling back’ communism and the ‘liberation’ of Eastern Europe. Based on ‘massive retaliation’ and the policy of brinkmanship* Dulles – ‘the ability to get to the verge without getting into war is the necessary art. If you cannot master it, you inevitably get into war. If you try to run away from it, if you are scared to go to the brink, you are lost’* In private however, Eisenhower and Dulles were cautious and understood the destructive nature of nuclear weapons. Their policy was based on a reasoned approach to the situation they faced.* Eisenhower was conscious of the power and influence exerted by the military-industrial complex and was aware that economic resources that could improve living standards were being diverted into arms production.* The US military, which had undergone massive expansion during the Korean War was in danger of distorting and unbalancing the US economy. With the growth of expensive nuclear mi ssiles, an agreement with the USSR appeared necessary.Therefore, from the early 1950s, the Governments of both the USA and USSR were facing the same pressures. Pushing them towards reaching an accommodation.Economic Pressures* The desire to reduce military spending to free resources for other sectors of the economy.* Domestic reforms and living standards were held back by pouring money into an unproductive military sector.* In the USSR aprox 1/3 of the economy was geared to the military sector* In the USA over 12% of GNP was spent on armaments – Eisenhower’s ‘New Look’ was designed in part to save money of conventional arms by relying on fewer but more powerful nuclear weapons* Neither country could sustain huge military costs without long-term damage to its economyAvoiding Nuclear War* Both Superpowers had the A bomb (1949) and H Bomb (1955)* Destructive power of the H-Bomb (x1000 more powerful than A-bomb dropped on Hiroshima) posed a very real danger to the existence of life on earth.* Moral dilemma for leaders whom the responsibility of using the weaponry fellWhat, if anything were the achievements of the ‘Thaw’?* The ‘Thaw’ in relations that developed after 1953 resulted in a series of summits between Eisenhower and Khrushchev – the ‘Geneva Spirit’* The achievements of these summits was certainly limited, but meaningful dialogue between the powers was a significant step forward.* Election of Eisenhower and death of Stalin enabled an armistice to be concluded in 1953 to end the Korean War.* New Soviet leadership put pressure on North Korea’s Kim Il Sung to agree to a ceasefire. There had been stalemate since ‘51* January 1954 – Berlin Foreign Ministers conference. Soviet representative Molotov, called for the creation of an all-German government out of those in West and East Germany to begin the move towards reunification.* Although the West opposed this idea †“ calling for free elections before the creation of a German Government, it was seen as rather more constructive than previous provocative Soviet proposals.July 1954: Geneva Conference – discuss problems in Asia/S.E Asia* Korean armistice confirmed* Settlement reached to allow French to withdraw from Indochina* Despite Dulles reservations over the wisdom of the settlement (communism in N. Vietnam) the agreement was endorsed by all involved.* The Communists had not been as obstructive as the West feared.New Soviet Approach – early 1955, USSR agreed to the reunification of Austria as long as it remained neutral.July 1955: Geneva Summit Meeting – leaders of USA/USSR/GB/FRANCE* Issue of German reunification raised – Khrushchev prepared to allow if Germany remained neutral* However, was made more complicated by the admission of West Germany into NATO in May 1955* For USA, West Germany of vital strategic importance.* Khrushchev suggested the dismantling of NA TO and Warsaw Pact and a new system of collective security in its place.* West weren’t prepared to agree to this, but were willing to look at arms limitations* Eisenhower suggested ‘open skies’ to verify arms agreements, Khrushchev refused this offer.* Conclusion: Both sides went in with high hopes, however the only agreement to come out of the summit was the cultural exchange of scientists, musicians and artists.* Eisenhower – blamed ‘Soviet duplicity’ for the summits failure. Yet recognised the potential for a future agreement. Hope was ‘badly blurred by the Soviets, (but) at least the outlines of the picture remained’* Khrushchev – Geneva had seen his policy of ‘Peaceful Coexistence’ fail to secure any concessions from the West.* Peaceful Coexistence however, did have an effect on relations within the Soviet Bloc.* Success – Improvement in relations with Communist Yugoslavia* Failure – Split wi th China – Mao had not been consulted about destalinisation, who was practicing Stalinist policies within China. His resentment led to a breach in relations with the USSR.The ‘Thaw’ was a cautious and limited move towards establishing a meaningful dialogue between the USA and USSR. Yet by 1955 the level of trust and understanding between the Superpowers had not substantially improved: the essential dynamics of the Cold War remained unchanged.What do the Crises between 1956 and 1962 tell us about the nature of the Cold War conflict?Reveal the superficial nature of the Cold War ‘Thaw’. Highlighted the need for some form of rules by which conflict should take place and therefore be limited. This conclusion is exemplified by the examination of 4 Cold War crises during this period.The Hungarian Rising 1956* Challenge to the post-war settlement* Evidence of Soviet vulnerability in Eastern Europe, undermining the image of a confident and powerful Soviet reg ime.* Although showed the willingness of the Soviet Union to maintain a tight hold over its sphere of influence.* Importance of the Warsaw Pact that helped Soviet dominance and organisation, ensuring other eastern bloc states contributed to the Soviet control* Soviets internally confused how to deal with the uprising, yet during 1950s USSR enjoyed parity with USA and the West was less unware of internal confusion and was less than confident in its ability to deal with the Soviet threat.* Important in establishing the rules of the Cold War – USA empty rhetoric over ‘rolling back’ and ‘liberalisation’ in the east.* The uprising complicated Western attempts to consolidate the prevailing balance of power and peace with USSR was principal foreign policy.* Eisenhower regime regarded the revolution as inconsistent with the pursuit of American national interests and taught Eastern Europe they could not rely on West to rid it of its unpopular regimes.* Howeve r, revolution served to discredit the USSR and the international Communist movement – USSR had crushed a popular workers’ uprising.* Until the rising, the official Communist movement had enjoyed considerable cultural authority amongst the western intelligentsia. After ’56 significant sections of this progressive opinion became estranged from the movement.* Accelerated the dismantling of Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe –* Depth of popular hatred for the regime was revealed and undermined the confidence of the Soviet leadership.* Ruling elite realised the application of 1950’s style coercion would no longer work in E.Europe. After the revolution was crushed, new Hungarian PM Janos Kadar set about introducing ‘gloulash communism’ – slowly the regime of coercion was relaxed and life was liberalised* Similar methods were introduced in other E.European countries, principally Czechoslovakia.* By 1970s economic reforms and the gradua l decline of state repression indicated that the days of the Soviet imposed regime were numbered. October 1956 helped to consolidate a trend that would lead eventually to the fall of the Berlin Wall.Berlin 1958-62* West Germany (NATO 1954), East Germany (WARSAW PACT 1955)* West Germany had undergone a ‘economic miracle’ since WW2, whilst East Germany struggled to present itself as a meaningful independent state.* The East German failure to win over its people was exemplified by the growing exodus across the ‘Iron Curtain’* 1  ½ million between 1950-55* The influx of East German citizens into the West, many of them young and skilled was a threat to Soviet power and prestige* In 1958 Khrushchev issue an ultimatum calling for the removal of all occupying forces from Berlin. Berlin would become a free city with the existence of East Germany formerly recognised by the West.* However, the unique position of West Berlin as an island of capitalism within communis t Germany was a powerful propaganda tool for the West in undermining the Socialist bloc.* It was only after Eisenhower invited Khrushchev to the US that he dropped the ultimatum. SUCCESS OF EISENHOWER’S PERSONAL DIPLOMACY* The ultimatum was renewed in June 1961 when Khrushchev met Kennedy at the Vienna Summit. The ultimatum was rejected, the West firmly believed in the concept of four-power administration* Both sides called up reservists in 1961 as the flood of refugees became a torrent, by June 1961 over 2.6m had left the GDR since ’49, 300,000 since January 1961 (6months). Partly caused by GDR’s 1960 decision to collectivise the remaining farms* Khrushchev gave the approval for the East German Government to build the Berlin wall: preventing the loss of young and skilled workers, stabilising East Germany and successfully contained the threat posed to the Soviet sphere of influence by Berlin.* 13th August 1961 – Soviet’s closed the East-West border except for specified crossing points* 17th August 1961 – Erected the Berlin Wall* 11,000 Western troops confronted the vastly superior Soviet conventional forces* The USA as in Hungary issued statements of condemnation but did nothing to intervene directly* The USSR had been careful to avoid interfering with the rights of the West within the cityThe Berlin Wall became a symbol of the economic and political bankruptcy of the eastern bloc: yet despite the rhetoric and tension generated, the wall illustrated the growing entrenchment and stability of the superpowers spheres of influence in Europe.The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962* Illustrated the impact of individual leaders – Khrushchev: tendency to push limits and test his opponents* Kennedy: relative youth and experience* Cuba, which the USA perceived to be in its ‘backyard’ had turned Communist in 1959 after a civil war. Took the cold war into Latin America, which had been considered part of the USA’s spheres of influence since the Monroe Doctrine 1863* Khrushchev, under pressure from the USA in the arms race which had by 1962 had developed a sizeable lead in the Arms Race* Khrushchev installed nuclear bases in Cuba in response to US bases in Turkey* The development of an increasingly large number of nuclear missiles gave the crisis the potential to be devastating* Personalities, Geography (threat to US sphere of influence) resulted in an especially hard-line US policy when the Soviet leadership was acting in an increasingly unpredictable manner.* Kennedy threatened to use nuclear weapons if Soviet ships carrying missiles did not return to Russia and the bases dismantled. BRINKMANSHIP in action* However, Kennedy was keen to ensure opportunities for a peaceful compromise were pursued – the difference between hard-line public rhetoric and caution and negotiation in private was vital in Kennedy’s approachThe impact of the Cuban Missile Crisis on superpower relations* Khrushchev was widely perceived to have ‘backed down’, at home and abroad, however the USSR did gain concessions on the removal of US bases in Turkey* Dangers of nuclear annihilation exposed by the crisis led to a recognition on both sides that relations had to be improved* If ideological tensions were too deep to relieve tension then some rules at least were needed to establish the conduct of conflict.* Hot line telephone link and Nuclear Test ban treaty of 1963 were the first steps in cooperation that developed in the 1970s into Dà ©tente.Taiwan Crisis 1954-58* August 1954, Shek authorized the movement of troops to the Nationalist stronghold islands of Quemoy and Matsu.* Mao saw an opportunity to â€Å"liberate Taiwan†, ordering the bombing of the occupied offshore islands beginning in September 1954.* The USA considered nuclear weapons, although Eisenhower followed a diplomatic path by enacting the Formosa Resolution in January 1955. Pledging the American def ence of Taiwan in the case of a communist invasion, but left vague whether the United States would intervene to protect the islands off China’s mainland.* Passage of the resolution produced a series of indirect negotiations between the US and China (in which the Chinese agreed to cease bombing Quemoy and Matsu), and the First Taiwan Straits Crisis ended in May 1955.* The United States and Taiwan entered into a mutual security pact, strengthening the connection between the two nations and making Mao’s â€Å"liberation† efforts more difficult to achieve.* By 1958, however, tension in the Taiwan Straits resumed. Concerned with increased American involvement in Taiwan and frustrated with the failure of his more moderate policy, Mao assumed a hard-line approach.* Ordering the bombing of Quemoy in August 1958, grounded in the belief that an international crisis could benefit the Chinese. Paint the US as imperialist aggressors, and demonstrating China’s independ ence from the dominant communist power of the era the Soviet Union.* Eisenhower reiterated America’s resolve to defend Taiwan (and the offshore islands even though they weren’t explicitly listed in the Formosa Resolution), both in rhetoric and by his decision to send a large naval contingent to the Taiwan Straits. Eisenhower’s forceful stance and Soviet pressure convinced the Chinese to end the bombing and seek a peaceful settlement with the Nationalist government in October 1958.* US had made a comprehensive commitment to Taiwan. PRC was angered at the timidity of the USSR. Strained superpower relations between USA, USSR and ChinaAssessment* Between 1956 and 1962 events in Hungary, Berlin, (Taiwan) and Cuba revealed both the potential dangers of crisis and confrontation, the superficial nature of the ‘thaw’ and laid done rules each side was prepared to adopt in order to stabilise relations.Khrushchev* Due to the political structure of the Soviet U nion left after Stalin, a large degree of power was invested in Khrushchev and thus changes in foreign policy were strongly influenced by the personal preferences of individual leaders.* Destalinisation – had a marked impact on superpower relations as well as the Soviet’s control over their satellite states* His changing temperament could either promote a ‘thaw’ in superpower relations (peaceful coexistence) or push the world towards nuclear annihilation (Cuban missile crisis).* He was removed from power in 1964, the Politburo accused him of ‘hare-brained scheming’, he had become increasingly unpredictable.Eisenhower* Eisenhower was very much in command of his administration and had great experience in foreign affairs. He was the first US President to define a successful national security policy and strategy in the nuclear age.* His greatest successes came in foreign policy and the related area of national defence spending. Ending war in Korea and refusing to get drawn into subsequent conflict. He made peace and kept the peace, saving untold billions and lives.* He understood the risks of erring on the side of activism and wisely accepted a minor setback rather than hazard a major disaster* His greatest failures were his lack of vision. His Cold War attitudes became increasingly outmoded in a world where nationalism was an ever more powerful force – (e.g. unappreciative of Mao’s nationalism)ConclusionThe context of superpower conflict was changing after 1948.* Growing stability of entrenched positions in Europe gave both sides some security in which to operate.* Pressures arising from the nuclear arms race and economic concerns meant different approaches to the conduct of Cold War relations were needed.* Change of leadership in both USA and USSR promoted a different approach to their foreign policies, attempts to establish the framework for improved relations were made possible.* Although tension was reduce d, there was little in the way of tangible achievements for either side by 1955.* Periodic crises from 1956-62 illustrated how the ‘thaw’ could easily give way to more dangerous conflict and how much the direction of superpower relations could depend on individual superpower leaders.